For proportions I mainly look at pictures and just look and change things along the way… However I don’t think proportions have to always be realistic as long as you do that on purpose, like I know most of the facial features I draw are too big but I made the decision to do it like that and I studied how it should be.
You don’t. It’s physically impossible. Kidding!
Most of the time I do a rough sketch of what I’m drawing. Then I perfect it little by little with darker lines =D
Or if I’m really struggling, I’ll use simple things as a guide, like circles or squares
To actually be decent in proportions, you have to know how body works and looks. Lame advice, I know . But what I’m trying to say is, familiarize where your poses are placed and sized since parts like joints, works in unique ways: like a wedge or ball and socket. Whether it’s stylized or not, i repeat myself, you have to know how thick, thin, big, small, and wiggly your part is. As I am not an expert, I have learned it by YouTube! But of course, a good artist knows its weakness, so a good reference is okay
To actually make your proportions look right, you have to do: measurements and skeletons. There is a specific way to measure correct proportions, but simple lines in the face works, and also: I also discovered that you can make a circle, draw curves, which is your eyelids, and place the iris; not the whole circle, but enough to look natural. So there are two things you need: measurements and familiarity of the human body. Skeletons work like a charm, real or made of shapes, it helps with keeping proportions in place and builds a familiar shape that is the human body.
It depends on your choice, but to me, if you want rubberhose or something whismsical, go for it! Having stylized art is pretty amazing! But know your limits, so that your character won’t look terribly awkward. If realistic/semi-realistic, it may not look right and may look disfigured and can disrupt balance in your art, know the limits of the flexibility of a human (or anything) , perspective , etc. To be decent at art is to balance your way of what is a right and wrong style
So my main advices in improving art: Familiarization, Measurements, Limits, and Practice.